THE WOODEN FINDS FROM PERRY OAKS

by Steve Allen

Methodology

The author was asked to report on an assemblage of material recovered by Framework

Archaeology from the excavation of the former Perry Oaks Sludge Works, Middlesex.
The material in question had already been excavated and a subsequent assessment
carried out by N Mitchell. This had included some sampling for species identification
and some photography. In addition, the wood record sheets assigned to the elements
of the assemblage were also made available. Some material had been discarded on site
or before delivery to Oxford Archaeology (OA) stores. Unfortunately there was no
definitive quantification available for the assemblage, in terms of what had been
discarded, what retained and what work had been done prior to this writers
involvement with the project. That any list was possible is due entirely to the efforts
of the finds staff at OA who physically searched through each store and box to list
what was actually present.

The artefacts from the assemblage had generally been cleaned and individually
packed in cling film and/or polythene fastened with parcel tape, with support where
necessary. Some items, such as the withy ties had been block lifted on site and were
still in their soil blocks. Samples and several of the structural pieces such as the
upright stakes had been wrapped or bagged on site, usually in self sealing polythene
bags, but had not generally been cleaned. The overall condition of the wood was fair,
some pieces being very well preserved, others, especially smaller pieces of
roundwood, were highly degraded.

Following a preliminary visit to see the assemblage in Oxford, a period of five days
was spent at Janus House in which a record was made of each retained object, or, in
the case of samples, a list checked and confirmed. These records took the form of
hand-written notes and annotated sketches of the artefacts. This additional recording
was necessary to recover information about woodworking technology, condition and
form which had not generally been included on the various wood record sheets used
in the field and post-excavation recording.

Sampling for species identification was also carried out for those artefacts that were
not to be sent to York for further study. All of the retained finds and samples were
seen, except for one box later found in a freezer. Some items were not found, though
recorded as being retained on the database. Those samples requiring species
identification were then delivered by OA to the Wet Wood Laboratory of York
Archaeological Trust.

Here a database was created using Microsoft Access to record information about each
object and to allow the data to be sorted and interrogated after the completion of
recording.
Species identification at York was carried out on an item by item basis. Each sample
was examined in transverse, radial longitudinal and tangential longitudinal sections
under a microscope; all species identifications follow Schweingruber (1982). All
identifications carried out in this way are incorporated into the database using their
scientific names. Common names on the database are those items which had been
identified by field staff but which cannot be confirmed as no sample was taken.

The only major problems with the assemblage were firstly that most of the non
artefactual pieces, species samples and such, needed to be washed before they could
be examined, which took around three days in total. Secondly the freezing of one of
the boxes of samples had irretrievably damaged some of the contents. Although it
was still possible to identify most of the pieces concerned, a small number of the
samples, possibly already degraded before freezing, had their cellular structure broken
down by the freezing process. Finally, one of the features had had sample numbers
assigned to groups of material, bags containing between eight and eleven sections of
roundwood. As it was difficult to refit them, owing to abrasion within the packaging,
it was not clear how many original individual pieces of wood were present.

Following examination, each piece was returned to its original packaging to await a
decision on its future.

Species and Common Names. Most of the wood can only be identified to a particular genera.
Although, for example, there are many different species of willow, their wood cannot be differentiated.
The following list gives the common names of the scientific identifications used in this report and the
database.

Acer campestre L. Field Maple

Alnus spp. Alder
Castanea sativa Gaertn. Sweet Chestnut
Corylus avellana L. Hazel
Frangula alnus Mill. Alder Buckthorn
Fraxinus excelsior L. Ash
Pomoideae spp. includes Apple, Pear, Hawthorn, Quince.
Populus sp. Aspen, White or Black Poplar
Prunus spp. includes Cherry (P. avium), Blackthorn (P. spinosa)
Quercus spp. Oak
Salix spp. Willows
Sambucus nigra L. Elder
Ulmus spp. Elms

Summary of Assemblages (see database for detailed records).

Wood was recovered from a number of negative features, interpreted as waterholes.

In all cases, the wood had survived through burial in waterlogged anoxic conditions,
maintained from burial through to excavation. The following report is divided into
sections by the features from which wood was recovered. Dating is based on the
information provided by Framework Archaeology (Project Design: Update note 2,
November 2000).
Bronze Age (Features SG103040, SG124100, OG125033, SG135071, SG141121,
SG152018, SG156028)

SG103040. Waterhole with two phases of revetting, a single 'step' replaced by a stake
and board structure. The horizontal (136215) of the primary phase was a single Oak
log, with minimal modification. A single timber (136220) was recorded from the
secondary phase. This was a piece of Oak cut from the top end of a small log or more
probably from a piece of branch wood. Several side shoots had been cut away with an
axe with one side branch left in place. The field records do not indicate whether this
timber was a horizontal or vertical element in the revetment.

SG124100. Waterhole with descending ramp down to a wattle revetment (124190).

The intact portion of the revetment which was identified appears to have consisted of
five upright roundwood stakes (124191-124195) of which three were sampled. These
were generally in poor condition and appeared to have had minimal modification
beyond the cutting of a single surface to create a half round cross section tip. Two
were Quercus, one Alnus. The roundwood woven around these uprights produced 39
samples, between 8 and 22 mm diameter of which there were 4 Quercus, 22 definite
and 2 probable Salix, 6 Fraxinus, 3 Prunus sp. and 2 not examined.

Some loose wood was found in the fills of this feature. Six roundwood stake points
from context 124101 (1 each of Acer, Quercus, Salix and Ulmus: 2 not sampled) and a
small number of chippings may relate to a later phase of revetting but are most
probably debris from a structure beyond the feature.

OG125033. Group of three intercutting pits. The earliest pit (SG125033) had a
cylindrical wattle lining, replaced by a line of posts with no surviving horizontal
elements. The wattle as excavated consisted of four upright stakes (159204-159207)
all of Salix roundwood, 50-58 mm diameter with half round cross section points. 22
samples of the roundwood from this structure were lifted, between 4 and 21 mm
diameter, of which there were 11 Prunus, 8 Salix and 3 not examined. Many of these
'rods' were very small diameter and would be characterised as twig rather than branch
wood. The line of upright stakes (159208-159211, 159215) interpreted as the
replacement for this structure were generally of larger diameter (52-90 mm), again of
Salix branch wood with some side branches left in place.

A single withy tie (SF 3319) was the only portable artefact from this feature.

The eastern pit (SG157243) has a single loose piece of wood in its fills. This is a
small stump from a Prunus spinosa (SF1061). The western pit (SG110107) of this
group produced a single tangentially faced Quercus board (SF274).

SG135071. Waterhole, with no revetment but a deposit of bark (135045- Alnus sp.), a
log ladder (135042) and artefacts (basketry SF 543-544, axe handle SF 88 and a
'beater' SF 323). 106 other loose pieces of wood were recovered from the same
feature including wood chippings (1 of Prunus, 2 not identified, 3 each of Populus
and Fraxinus, 6 Quercus, 11 Salix and 14 Alnus spp.), bark chippings (1 Salix, 1
Fraxinus and 11 unidentified), sections of roundwood (1 each of Frangula, and
Fraxinus, 2 unidentified, 5 Alnus, 6 Quercus, 11 Prunus and 22 Salix spp.) and stake
points (1 Salix and 4 Quercus spp.). It is possible that among this assemblage are the
remains of a disarticulated wattle lining. However the diverse composition and the
fact that much of the roundwood consists of twig-type material suggests rather that
this is a more casually derived assemblage.

SG141024 (141121?). Waterhole of two phases, with wattle revetment and log ladder
in earliest and log ladder for later phase. The earliest phase wattle revetment
(121047/121048) is associated with log ladder 121049. As well as the 37 sections of
roundwood (26 Salix, 4 unidentified, 2 each of Alnus and Populus, 1 each of Quercus,
Fraxinus and Prunus) the assemblage included 12 wood chippings (7 Salix, 3 Acer, 1
each of Quercus and Prunus spp.), 9 unidentified bark chippings and 2 unidentified
boards. The Log ladder itself was identified as Populus sp.

The recut of this pit contained only the second log ladder (108086), Alnus sp., and a
single section of roundwood (108087), Prunus avium.

SG152018. Waterhole/pit with loose wood in fill. Six pieces of wood (SF 97-99, 107-
109) were taken from this feature for C14 dating and were not available for
examination.

SG156028/156031. Waterhole with wattle cylinder lining and several artefacts. The
structural elements from this feature appear to consist of the remains of a wattle panel
(156020) from which 9 chippings (1 Pomoidiae, 8 Quercus spp.) and 12 sections of
roundwood, 6 to 20 mm diameter (1 each of Acer, Alnus, Pomoidiae, Salix, Ulmus
and 7 Quercus spp.) were recovered. A second assemblage (156023) which produced
15 sections of roundwood, 5-12 mm diameter (7 unidentified, 6 Quercus and 2 Salix
spp.) may be derived from brushwood trimmings or sweepings.

The primary deposit of this feature (155197) produced an axe handle (SF 207), a
'beater' (SF208), a section of Fraxinus roundwood and a burnt forked Corylus branch.
From elsewhere in this feature context 155186 produced an Acer stake point, two
rods, (1 each of Fraxinus and Prunus spp.) and a withy tie (SF1434), context 155187
produced an unidentified roundwood section and an Alnus chipping whilst context
155190 2 Quercus stake points, three populus roundwood sections and another withy
tie (SF 203).

Late Prehistoric/early Romano-British. (Feature OG178108)

OG178108. Waterhole with possible wattle revetting. Five upright stake points were
identified in this feature (3 Salix and 2 Sambucus nigra spp.) with three Quercus sp.
chippings. Each stake had been cut from branch wood, with one of the Sambucus
examples from a forked branch with the fork left in place.

Early Romano-British. (Feature SG133198)

SG133198. Waterhole with wattle cylinder lining and artefacts. This produced one of
the better preserved wattle structures, with 13 upright Alnus sp. stakes (121177-
121185, 121187-121190) supporting woven wattles (133091) of Corylus roundwood,
9-32mm diameter. A single Quercus support or brace had been introduced to help
support the wattle structure. Unfortunately the sampling of this structure left it unclear
what each sample represented.

From the fills of this feature were recovered a single Salix chipping, 13 sections of
Salix roundwood, a single Quercus stake, a withy tie (SF 2083), part of a hollowed
vessel (SF 1819) and a shaped offcut (SF1808).

Romano-British (Features OG127138, OG129112, OG148302)

OG127138. Waterhole with possible wooden revetting. A single stake tip and an
eroded heartwood chipping, both Quercus sp., were the only pieces recovered from
this feature.

OG129112. Pit with artefact. A single stake point and charred heartwood chipping,
neither of which were retained, accompanied a withy tie (SF 218).

OG148302. Waterhole with possible revetment removed during recutting. A single

?post (148303) was recovered for C14 dating and not available for examination.

Late Romano-British (Features SG1355087, SG174069)

SG135087. Pit with artefacts. Two withy ties (SF 135088/135089) were the only
pieces of wood recovered from this feature.

SG174069. Waterhole with four phases of use. Wood from final phase includes
plank and stake revetting and artefacts. The collapsed revetting (174040) of this
feature consisted of several (all Quercus sp.) boards, three of which (174050, 174051,
174054) had sawn half lap joints at the ends. These boards were supported by four
(174053, 174055, 174059-174060) stakes, (2 Quercus, 2 Corylus spp.) with three
other stake points (1 each Quercus, Fraxinus and unidentified spp.) from the fill
(174017/174049) possibly being for the same purpose.

Four chippings (2 Castanaea sativa, 1 each of Alnus and Ulmus spp.) and two
sections of roundwood (1 not retained, 1 Fraxinus excelsior L.) came from the fill of
this feature. To the roundwood should also be added the 'crop crook' (SF 1815),
which, though worked at a forked end is not recognisably an artefact. Two withy ties
(SF 1230 and 1807) and a broken and insect attacked section of Quercus were found.
Finally, the worked block (SF 1810) was also recovered from this feature.
Selected Small Finds- Catalogue

A number of the artefacts and timbers merit further comments. These are grouped
here by date and object type.

Bronze Age

SG125033.
SF 3319. Withy Tie. 3 strands forming a straight length of rope. Only Species
Identification sample retained. 20 dia. Fraxinus excelsior L. Context 159214

SG135071.
SF88. Handle of socketed axe/adze. Broken into three sections, two of which refit to
form the shaft, but which do not refit to the head. Top of head damaged. Roughly
quartered shaft of handle worked to an oval cross section. Single side branch pared to
fit inside a socket at an angle of 66 degrees to the handle. Crushing of wood at base of
side branch indicates socketed tool has been hafted to handle. No trace of binding or
hafting ties. Handle 245 l, butt 41 w, 34 th. tapering to 28 w, 22 th. Fitting for socket
94 l, 28 w, 25 th tapering to 18 w, 15 th. Alnus sp. Context 135041

SF323. 'Beater'. Tapering sub rectangular artefact with oval cross section modified by
multiple axe facets on one face and both edges. Some uniform wear on all surfaces,
axe facets well defined and several surviving tool signatures. Thinner end broken but
fragment refitting. No evidence for mounting or hafting. 346 l, 68 w, 25 th.
Incomplete axe marks up to 28 w. Tangentially faced Pomoideae sp. Context
135041

SF543/544 Basketry. Not examined. Context 135040

SF 563-583. 'Bark Container' Twenty assorted fragmentary groups of bark. Some

show axe cut edges and there are occasional blade marks on the inner faces of the
bark. No fixings, fittings or artificial holes observed. Not certainly a container or the
remains thereof. Largest piece 257 l, 88 w, 4 th. Several pieces identified from
remaining wood inside as Alnus sp. Context 135045.

135042. Log Ladder. Section of roundwood in two refitting parts. Lower end hewn
at angle to create base with well-preserved axe marks. Single step cut towards top
end. Some bark present. Top end eroded and damaged. 1.300 m l, 185 dia. Step 815
from lower end, 80 deep. 'Tread' notch 165 long. Axe marks up to 74 wide. Alnus
sp.

SG141024 (141121?).
102049. Log Ladder. Section of roundwood in four refitting parts. Lower end hewn
to roughly bifacial blunt point with axe hewing marks. Three steps cut into same face.
Top end bent over due to compression during burial. Bark absent. 1.230m l, 168 dia.
Lower step 402 from lower end, 65 deep, middle step 777 from lower end, 55 deep,
upper step 1.092m from lower end, 40 deep. 'Tread' notches 120 long. Axe marks 47
wide. Populus sp.
108086. Log Ladder. Section of roundwood in three refitting parts. Lower end hewn
to blunt bifacial point with well preserved complete axe marks. Single step cut
towards top end. Bark present, some hewn away with removal of a side branch
during preparation. 1.091m l, 155 dia. Step 829 from lower end, 58 deep. 'Tread'
notch greater than 242 long. Axe marks 61 wide. Alnus sp.

SG156028/156031.
SF203 Withy tie. Three strands, 'S' twisted, plaited 'Z' fashion to form a fragmentary
rope loop. Elements frayed and compressed. Some bark present, no working marks.
Strands originally c 10 dia. Rope c. 38 dia. Salix sp. Context 155190

SF207 Handle of socketed axe/adze. Broken into four refitting sections but
substantially complete. Quartered shaft of handle carefully worked to an oval cross
section. Single side branch pared to fit inside a socket at an angle of 62.5 degrees to
the handle. Crushing of wood at base of side branch indicates socketed tool has been
hafted to handle. No trace of binding or hafting ties. 706 l, butt 37w, 32 th tapering
to 44w, 29 th. Butt to mount 655, fitting for socket 79 l, 27w, 33.5 th, tapering to
24w, 28 th. Quercus sp. Context 155197

SF208 'Beater'. Tapering sub rectangular artefact with smooth oval cross section
modified by multiple axe facets on all of one face, part of the other face and both
edges. Some uniform wear on all surfaces, axe facets well defined but tool signatures
almost lost. Thinner end broken. No evidence for mounting or hafting. 301 l, 75 w,
27 th. Incomplete axe marks up to 37 w. Tangentially faced Pomoideae sp. Context
155197

SF1434 Withy tie. Four strands 'S' twisted, plaited 'Z' fashion to form a short length
of rope. No bark present. No working marks. Strands 6.5, 10, 10.5 and 11 dia, rope
21 dia. Salix sp. Context 155186

Later Romano-British

SG133198.
SF 1808. Shaped object. Box quartered with rectangular cross section, both edged
taper gently towards each sawn end. Light saw marks at each end. 113 l, 28 w, 19 th.
Quercus sp. Context 133075

SF 1819. Hollowed vessel. Two joining pieces of a bowl or trough. Plain rounded
rim, flat base, single Fe nail driven through wall of vessel just below the rim from the
outside. Hollowed from slow grown halved timber. Very eroded- no surviving
toolmarks. Height to rim 131, Internal depth 100, c 280 dia. wall 26 th, base 23 th.
Nail head c 25 dia. Quercus sp. Context 133090

SF 2083. Withy Tie. Fifteen strands 'S' twisted, of which three are loosely 'Z' plaited
into a short fragmented rope, five laid roughly parallel with no plaiting and the
remainder 'Z' plaited into a rope loop. No bark present, no working marks. Rope loop
strands 3 of 16, 2 of 17, 1 each of 19 and 20 dia; Parallel strands 15, 17, 19, 20 and
21 dia; straight rope 15, 22 and 24 dia. Salix sp. Context 133074
OG129112.
SF 218. Withy Tie. Three strands 'S' twisted, two of which are loosely plaited 'Z'
fashion to form a linear rope. Some bark present. No working marks. Fragmentary.
Strands 8.5, 9 and 10.5 diameter. Salix sp. Context 129117

SG135087.
135088. Withy Tie. Three strand length with loop at one end. Not available for
examination. Context 135077

135089. Withy Tie. Three strands 'S' twisted and 'Z' plaited to form a rope partial
loop. Some bark present, no working marks. Fragmentary. Strands 6.5, 9 and 10.5
dia. Rope 27 dia. Corylus avellana L. Context 135077

SG174069.
SF 1230. Withy Tie. Three strands, each 'S' twisted and 'Z' plaited to form a half
loop of rope. Some bark present. No working marks. Strands 10, 10.5, 11 and 12.5
dia. Rope 24 dia. Salix sp. Context 174020

SF 1807. Withy Tie. Four strands, each 'S' twisted and 'Z' plaited to form a
fragmentary half loop of rope. Some bark present. No working marks. Strands 7, 11,
14 and 15 diameter. Rope 40 dia. Salix sp. Context 174039

SF 1810. Block. Box halved, rectangular cross section, edges hewn to blunt apex.
One face has seven blind sockets cut into it, in a regular pattern but of varying depths
and dimensions. Much sapwood present, with evidence of insect attack. Worn and
eroded surfaces, some surface damage additional to that from insects, otherwise
complete. No evidence for fixtures or fittings. 270 l, 169 w, 71 th. Sockets are 18 l,
20 w, 31 deep; 18 l, 13 w, 27 deep; 20 l, 16 w, 22 deep; 52 l, 51 w, 48 deep; 37 l, 24
w, 45 deep; 32 l, 29 w, 32 deep; 51 l, 58 w, 56 deep. Quercus sp. Context 174039

SF 1815 'Crop Crook'. Curved length of roundwood, truncated fork at one end. No
wear or evidence of other modification. Stray piece from wattle structure. 528 l, 22
dia. Fraxinus excelsior L. Context 174049

Small Finds- Discussion.

Bronze Age
Three withy ties were recovered from features of this date. Two of these were straight
lengths of rope and the third a fragmentary loop. One of the straight lengths was Ash,
the remainder Willow. Each appears to have been prepared in the same way by their
individual strands being twisted clockwise and then plaited together anticlockwise.
Small fragments of bark indicate that this was still present when the work was carried
out and support the conclusion that the twisting and plaiting was done using freshly
cut green wood.

No marks were found to suggest that these sections of rope had been cut before they
were discarded; the fragmented and eroded ends suggest rather that they broke
through use and were discarded as waste. Unfortunately there is nothing to indicate
what these items were used for before they were discarded. Similar ties to these were
excavated from Iron Age contexts at Goldcliff (Brunning and Bell 2000, 118), and
The Breiddin (Britnell and Earwood 1991, 164) though these were of Hazel (Corylus
avellana L.) and Hazel or Willow respectively. Yew (Taxus buccata L) was used for
the ties fastening the various sewn plank Ferriby boats (Wright 1990, 65), whilst
Willow and Hazel were used to fasten wattle hurdles together on the Neolithic
trackway at Walton Heath (Coles and Coles 1986, 87). Some of the fragments from
Glastonbury (Bulleid 1911, 341) were associated with frame timbers, interpreted as
parts of a loom.

The two axe/adze handles were clearly intended for, and used with, socketed axes.
Both examples are worked from long shafts, forming the handles, with one principal
side branch worked to create a tine to fit into the socket. The angle of the tine to the
handle (62.5 and 66 degrees) is deliberate; the tines are worked slightly off the centre
of the side branch and there was sufficient wood available for the angle to have been
made somewhat closer to a right angle had this been required. There is no evidence to
suggest whether the blade on SF207 was an axe or an adze but the cross section of the
tine on SF88 is more likely to have been associated with an axe. A shaving tool
appears to have been utilised to trim the handle shaft but a sharp axe blade appears to
have been all that was necessary to shape the butt and the head.

A number of socketed axe/adze handles of Bronze Age date are known. The remains
of an Oak tine were found in a socketed axe from Horsford, Norfolk (McK. Clough
1970-73, 491). Two single piece Oak handles were excavated at Flag Fen (Taylor
1992, 494), though in the complete example, the tine was carved from the main fork
and the handle from the side branch, reversing the practice at Perry Oaks. An Alder
handle is known from Inishmuck Lough, Co. Cavan (Green 1978, 139).

The two 'beaters' (SF 323 and 208), found in association with the axe/adze handles,
are of uncertain function. The wood they are cut from might be any of a number of
fruit woods, such as apple, pear or hawthorn. They are fine grained and hard wearing.
It would not be out of place to expect these artefacts to have been intended for some
form of pounding or crushing activity, such as food preparation or, if hafted, as
mattocks.

The wear on these objects though is quite uniform and as such probably occurred
during burial rather than through use. It is questionable whether these are in fact
finished artefacts. The axe marks are not smoothed off, the damage appears to have
taken place during burial and there is no trace of any hafting or mounting for these
tools. In appearance, these 'beaters' are very similar to unpolished stone axe/adzes.
If ritual explanations for the depositions in these waterholes are invoked, then it may
be worth considering whether these 'beaters' are wooden substitutes for the bronze
axe/adze heads removed from the handles with which they are associated.

Access to certain of these waterholes was provided via log ladders, of which three
(102049, 108086 and 135042) were recovered. Each had been cut from a log of
similar diameter (155-185 mm), one from a Poplar/Aspen, the others from Alder. The
lower end of each had been cross cut with an axe to provide an end which could be
pushed into the base of the waterhole and thereby provide a firmer seating for the
ladder. The notched steps were also cut out with axes, to a depth of between one third
and one half the thickness of the log. The two single notched ladders had a significant
distance between the base and the first tread of around 0.82 m, which is not an easy
step. It is probable therefore that these ladders were intended to be pushed into the
base of their respective features as semi permanent fixtures, rather than temporary
access. Only one of the ladders (121049) had more than one surviving step, these
were spaced slightly closer together and cut less deeply the closer they were to the
upper end of the log.

This log was used butt end up, the others placed butt end down. This meant that the
natural taper of the wood was widest at the base of the latter two. The reversing in
121049 is due to the forking of the log at what was used as the lower end- the log is
thicker here due to the presence of two other substantial side shoots springing from
the main log at this point, and so the thickest part of the log was therefore utilised as
the base of the ladder. These three logs all appear to have been cut from substantial
branch wood rather than trunks, with side shoots and subsidiary branches hewn away.

A number of parallels for these ladders are known. They include an Oak log ladder of
LBA date from Radley, Oxfordshire with two notched steps and a bifaced lower end
(Taylor 1995, 40) is of comparable size, with an Alder example from Fengate (Pryor
1991, 55). A further Bronze Age Oak log ladder from Eton, Buckinghamshire, of
smaller diameter with two notched steps was recently recovered and conserved at
York Archaeological Trust.

Careful cleaning and examination of the pieces of bark (SF 563-583), failed to reveal
any indication that it was part of a container. No fixtures or fittings were identified,
nor were any holes for possible fastenings found, such as are normally present on
such artefacts (Earwood 1988, 87) . Bark containers are normally constructed from
sheets of bark removed from a log by cutting a cylinder from the parent log, then
splitting the bark along its length to peel it away from the wood. It is difficult to
envisage how a whole cylinder of bark might be removed from a log without leaving
any trace of such working, or how a bark container could be made without any
fastenings or lacing or associated bindings. Metal blade marks on the inner face of
several of the fragments and several cut edges suggest rather that this bark is waste
from the working of an Alder log.

Romano-British
Further withy ties were recovered from features of this date, and in terms of
technology are indistinguishable from the earlier examples. There are more loops, but
this is probably a reflection of the greater number of pieces (6) recovered. One
however (135088) was made from elements of Hazel, rather than Willow. Again, no
specific function can be assigned to these pieces. Handles and bindings are likely
uses.

A single hollowed vessel (SF 1819) was recovered. Its irregular surface suggests it
was carved from the solid, rather than turned on a lathe. It is possible that this object
is the end of a trough, rather than a bowl. Such vessels are known from several
Roman sites including Mancetter (Allen, forthcoming), though their ends are usually
flanged. Unusually, the conversion of this piece of wood has left the rim of the vessel
nearer to the outer sapwood edge of the log. Most such vessels are carved with the
base towards the sapwood edge, and make use of the curvature of the heartwood
sapwood boundary to help form the profile of the vessel. The single iron nail may be
part of a fitting for a handle or for suspension.

SF 1808 is an offcut or an unfinished artefact. Its purpose is not known but it is

regularly and deliberately shaped.

Finally the worked block (SF 1810) requires some comment. The damage which is
apparent on this object took place before burial- the wood boring beetles responsible
for the insect damage to the sapwood and surrounding areas would not survive in
waterlogged burial conditions. Clearly the object was exposed for some time prior to
burial. There is no intrinsic evidence to suggest what this object was. Other than the
seven sockets cut into the one face there appears to be no means of attaching the block
to anything else. The object shows no sign of having been truncated or cut or split off
from a larger timber after the evident working on it was finished. It is therefore a
slightly damaged but substantially complete artefact.

The sockets vary too much for them to engage with, for example, tenons or pegs in
another piece of wood. The sharp, well preserved, chisel marks on their sides do not
suggest any rubbing or friction between the sockets and anything they contained.
They are not the components of a joint. The shaping of the overall object is also
deliberate, and not the result of accidental breakage, but is not especially fine or
carefully done. The same can be said of the sockets.

At present, the best suggestion is that this block is the core of a reliquary or similar
object. The sockets would contain some sort of relic or material of religious
significance, and be entirely encased in a cover, perhaps metal plate or leather. The
cover may have been partially removable, through lifting 'doors' to allow access to the
contents, or through a sliding or hinged plate. At some stage the cover was removed
or detached, the contents removed and the core discarded.

Possible parallels for this artefact are rare. A reliquary of 9th or 10th century date is
known from Sussex Street, Winchester (Hinton, Keene and Qualmann 1981). This
consists of a beechwood core encased in gilded copper alloy sheets nailed or tacked in
place. Study of the object indicates that sockets or holes were cut into it to contain
pieces of parchment. The object is much smaller than the Perry Oaks block and
differently shaped. A similar continental artefact, the Stephanusbursa, a portable c.9th
century reliquary, has a wooden core with six cavities cut into it (Hinton et. al. op cit,
62).

There is of course no evidence that any form of casing was applied to the Perry Oaks
block. There are no nails or nail impressions. Nor is there any evidence for whatever
may have fitted or been placed in the sockets. The function of this artefact as a type of
reliquary or similar can therefore remain as nothing more than a suggestion at present.

.
The Use and Character of the Wood from Perry Oaks

The wood recovered from the Perry Oaks features include wood placed intentionally,
as lining or revetting, and wood which was incorporated into the fills. An element of
selection is present to a greater or lesser degree in all of the wood deposited.
Obviously, the linings were made from pieces selected for the purpose. The loose
finds, whether twigs, chippings or artefacts are also selected, as wood is both a
reusable material and ultimately a source of fuel. The non-structural wood may have
been placed deliberately, with overtones of ceremony (as is perhaps the case with the
axe/adze handle and 'beater' associations), through to a simple decision that a group of
chippings were not worth taking to a fire.

The assemblages from Perry Oaks are dominated by roundwood, usually employed to
make woven wattle structures to retain the sides of negative features. Only in the
Roman period are plank or board structures utilised for this purpose, and then only in
one feature. The wattle structures appear to be of similar construction. The worked
lower ends of the upright elements are almost invariably cut to a point, suggesting that
the stakes were driven into the base of the feature and the horizontal rods woven
around them.

Although only one substantial Roman wattle structure was excavated, compared to
five Bronze Age, they do exhibit significant differences. The uprights of the Bronze
Age structures have modifications limited to the cutting of a point and the trimming of
side shoots while a mix of wood species is apparent in wattles and uprights within the
same structure. The uprights of the Roman structure have hewn points, but also have
two flat opposing faces along their length, giving a sub rectangular cross section. All
of its uprights are Alder, whilst all of the wattles are Hazel.

Analysis of the five Bronze Age assemblages (figs. 1, 2, 3) bring out some aspects of
the wood selection. Selection for size is not rigid, the diameter ranges being fairly
widely spaced. The wattles from 124190 and 121048 have a more tightly bunched
distribution than the others, with fewer extremes of diameter. 124190 tends towards
rods around 15mm diameter, whilst those from 121047/121048 tend to be slightly
smaller. None of the wattles were more than eight years in age, and potentially, the
material may be derived from underwood felled on a seven to eight year cycle. The
species range from these structures though should be noted. The underwood from
which these rods were taken was not of homogenous composition. It is highly likely
that for these species to be so integrated within the same structure, they were cut and
collected at the same time and, by implication, growing together. The exclusive use of
Hazel rods in the one Roman wattle structure hints that a different woodscape was
then being exploited. Unfortunately, the way this structure was sampled means that
any analysis of its components is impossible.

The Bronze Age woodland resources represented by this assemblage includes Oak,
Ash, Willow, Poplar/Aspen, Alder and Prunus species (probably Prunus spinosa L,
Blackthorn) with occasional Field Maple, Elm and Pomoideae species (fruitwoods
probably including Apple or Pear, or Hawthorn. There is one identification of Alder
Buckthorn (Frangula alnus). Such trees are characteristic of lowland river valley
woodlands, wet or damp locations with base rich soils (Mitchell1986). Most if not all
are capable of management by coppice or pollarding. The uprooted stump of a
Blackthorn from SG157243 suggests that some of these may have been growing as
scrub woodland in the immediate vicinity. It is noteworthy that there are no samples
from trees that prefer drier or well-drained locations, such as Beeches, or those
preferring light soils, such as Birches.

The Roman woodscape is somewhat different. Though Oak, Willow, Alder, Ash and
an odd piece of Elm are still present, Field Maple, Aspen/Poplar, Pomoideae and
Prunus are no longer present. Instead there are occasional Elder and Sweet Chestnut,
with a high proportion of Hazel. The woodland being exploited seems to be a little
drier and lighter, with one new species, Sweet Chestnut, which was imported and
established in the Roman period (Rackham 1990, 98; Nayling 1991, 12).

Where bark edges were present, examination showed that the roundwood had been
cut before the commencement of spring growth, i.e. during the autumn or winter.
This is traditionally be the best time to cut small diameter roundwood, when the wood
is relatively dry and the leaves have gone.

Preparation of the wood appears to have taken place before the wood arrived at its
intended point of use. Woodworking is a subtractive process. Although chippings are
present in the majority of the features under discussion, few if any can be
convincingly related to the wooden structures. In the Bronze Age, SG 141024 which
produced one Poplar/Aspen and one Alder log ladders, there are no chippings of those
species. In SG135071, the Alder log ladder is associated with 12 chippings of Alder.
The ladder has over 28 surviving axe marks on its surface, which are a small
proportion of the number which would have been required to shape this object. In
the Roman period, from feature SG133198, there are 13 Alder stakes with worked
points and split faces and not a single Alder chipping. The boards used to line
SG174040 are not associated with any debris which would have resulted from the
sawing and splitting of the crude lap joints employed.

Some woodworking activity was taking place in the vicinity of these features. The
chippings and offcuts are unlikely to have moved very far from the place where they
were created. However the debris is associated with the use and filling of the features
rather than the making of structures within them.

There are very few tools whose presence is directly attested by this assemblage. Axes
41, 67 and 74 mm wide were used to cut and trim the three log ladders and similar
tools could account for the few cut roundwood ends present. That such axes were
socketed is suggested, but not proved, by the handles recovered from two of the
waterholes. In the Roman period, axes were still employed, while chisel blades 9.5
mm wide (sockets of SF1810) and saws (Lap joints of 174051) are also used.
Marking out tools, and heavy blades or wedges for splitting timber is implied by the
conversions of several of the pieces.
References:

Allen, SJ (forthcoming) 'The Worked Wood' in Booth, P 'Excavations at Mancetter',

Warwickshire Museums Service

Brunning, R and Bell, M (2000) 'Wood Artefacts', in Bell M, Castledine A and

Neumann H (2000) Prehistoric Intertidal Archaeology in the Welsh Severn
Estuary. Council for British Archaeology Research Report 120, 116-118

Bulleid, A (1911) 'Objects of wood and worked timber' in Bulleid, A and St George
Gray, H (1911) The Glastonbury Lake Village Glastonbury, 310-351

Coles, JM and Coles, B (1986) Sweet Track to Glastonbury- the Somerset levels in
prehistory. London

Earwood, C (1988) 'Wooden containers and other wooden artefacts from the
Glastonbury lake Village' Somerset Levels Papers no. 14, 83-90

Earwood, C (1997) The wooden artefacts' in Nayling, N and Castledine, A (1997)

Excavations at Caldicot, Gwent: Bronze Age Palaeochannels in the Lower
Nedern Valley. Council for British Archaeology Research Report 108, 204-210

Green, HS (1978) 'Late Bronze Age wooden hafts from Llyn Fawr and Penwyllt'
Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies vol. 28, 136-141

Hinton, DA, Keene, S and Qualmann, KE (1981) 'The Winchester Reliquary'

Medieval Archaeology vol. 25, 45-77

McK. Clough, TH (1970-73) 'A late Bronze Age socketed axe from Horsford,
Norfolk' Norfolk Archaeology vol. 35, 491-493

Mitchell, A (1986) A Field Guide to the Trees of Britain and Northern Europe
London.

Musson, CR (1991) The Breiddin Hillfort: a later prehistoric settlement in the

Welsh Marches. Council for British Archaeology Research Report 76

Nayling, N (1991) 'An identification of Sweet Chestnut (Castanaea sativa) from

Roman London' NewsWARP vol.10 p12

Rackham, O (1990) Trees and Woodland in the British Isles London

Schweingruber FW (1982) Microscopic Wood Anatomy Zurich

Taylor, M (1992) 'Flag Fen: The Wood' Antiquity vol. 66, 476-498

Taylor, M (1995) 'The worked wood' in Mudd, A et.al. (1995) 'The excavation of a
late Bronze Age/early Iron Age site at Eight Acre Field, Radley' Oxoniensia vol. 60,
21-66
The archive for this report contains the following:
A4 Lever Arch File with Wood Record sheets completed by field staff
A4 notebook with notes made by the writer.
Database summarising the above (hard copy and on disk).- Microsoft Access v7
Report (hard copy and on disk).- Microsoft Word 97 with three charts in Adobe Illustrator v7
B/W record negatives of selected artefacts.